This UTF-8 webpage is created based on a pre-publication version. For transcribing Yale romanization with tone diacritics, Prof. Chin-chuan Cheng’s freely-downloadable Chinese Pinyin fonts were used in the original manuscript and are retained here. The Unicode font used for preparing this webpage is the freely-downloadable Arial Unicode MS Font.   Chinese characters on this webpage are best viewed using PMingLiU font under Windows 2000, or some other font that supports the display of Cantonese vernacular characters. Check if your display looks like the following JPEG from example 1 below, containinig Chinese and vernacular Cantonese characters and Yale romanization with tone diacritics.

In: Studies in the Linguistic Sciences 26.1/2 (Spring/Fall 1996):1-38.

Gender-Marked Speech in Cantonese:

The Case of Sentence-Final Particles Je and Jek [1]

Marjorie K.M. Chan

The Ohio State University

Many publications exist on gender differences in English and other languages. For Cantonese, Light's 1982 article, based on observational data and native speakers’ judgments of others’ and their own speech, may be the only publication on the topic to date.[2] This study focuses on the sentence-final particles jē and jēk, the most often reported in the literature as feminine-marked. The database consists of twelve episodes of a weekly television series produced in Guangzhou (Canton). The study finds that men use these particles but not as frequently as females do. Other findings include gender differences in the selection of jē versus jēk, and use of interrogatives versus declaratives containing these particles. Hints of possible generational differences are also found. Overall, the results suggest that the topic of language and gender is a complex one that encompasses broader issues of interpersonal language use in different socio-cultural contexts.

 

1. INTRODUCTION. In listening to colloquial Cantonese speech, one is immediately struck by the large inventory of sentence-final particles in the language. It far surpasses the seven cited for standard Chinese (Matthews and Yip 1994:338). Excluding particle clusters, of which Cantonese can have as many as three strung together, some sources list thirty or more basic forms (Kwok 1984:8, Ouyang 1993:63), and others have listed as many as seventy-seven (Ball 1924:122-125). As Ball (p.122) aptly remarks with wonder, "It is curious, and most interesting to notice how small and insignificant a word at the end of a sentence will change the meaning of the whole sentence, like the rudder at the stern of the ship governing the motions of the whole vessel." In his book, Cantonese Made Easy, Ball (p.125) recommends using particles "at the end of a third, or perhaps nearly a half of the phrases and sentences (as well as after the same proportion of the single words) that you use"! [3]  

            Sentence-final particles in Cantonese often carry much of the intonation of the sentence. While a number of them may have important grammatical function, such as changing a declarative sentence into an interrogative one, many do not have obvious grammatical function. They may simply have highly affective value, reflecting the attitudes and emotions of the speaker. The current study focuses on the particles jē  and jēk. Both particles are uttered in high tone: jē  [tsɛ˥] is high level [4], and jēk  [tsɛk˥ ] high with unreleased velar stop closure (and sometimes with glottal closure)[5]. These two particles have been reported in the literature as feminine sentence-final particles, in that they are viewed as somehow more characteristic of children’s or younger women’s speech (Qiao 1966, Cheung 1972, Light 1982, Ouyang 1993, Matthews and Yip 1994). Some male native speakers of Cantonese today may deny that they have adopted these particles (especially jēk ) in their speech. In the literature, some scholars (e.g., Cheung 1972, Light 1982) have treated jē  and jēk  as a single particle. I have chosen to treat them as separate particles for a closer scrutiny of their functions and for a more careful study of the corpus.[6]

            The earliest publication on gender-differentiated speech in Cantonese is that by Light (1982), who analyzed jēk (treating jē  as one of the variant forms, following Cheung 1972), and two other sentence-final particles. Light predicts that feminine speech markers should be less frequently used, or used in reduced contexts, in China because of women’s increased participation in wider areas of society than in the previous ‘old society’. His prediction is borne out in his study, with data based on judgments reported by native speakers about others’ speech and about their own speech.

            This study is a corpus-based investigation of the jē and jēk in Cantonese speech in the People’s Republic of China using a set of videotaped data from a television series produced in Guangzhou (Canton City) in the 1980’s. In the process, we will revisit the prediction made by Light. The remainder of the paper proceeds as follows. Information on the corpus is presented in Section 1.1. Sections 1.2 and 1.3 provide an overview of the various pragmatic and affective uses of jē  and jēk as described in the literature: Section 1.2 presents the definitions given in some of the Cantonese dictionaries, while Section 1.3 reports on descriptions and discussions in grammars, textbooks, and other sources. Section 2 analyzes the corpus, and is subdivided into two parts. Section 2.1 presents some of the jē  and jēk sentences in the Kaleidoscope series (where the data have been transcribed), and analyzes them with respect to the various functions discussed in the literature. Section 2.2 then provides observation on the distribution of the two particles with respect to sentence types and who uses them. Section 3 presents some conclusions based on the findings, and addresses some related issues.

1.1. The Corpus. The data for the current study come from twelve, videotaped episodes of a very popular, half-hour weekly television series, Maahnfa Tung 萬花筒 ‘Kaleidoscope’, which ran for two years from July 1986 to June 1988. The episodes were produced each week, totalling 103 in all. The main characters (i.e., the regulars in the series) were played by the same actors and actresses throughout that period. The series was filmed by the Guangdong Television Company on location in a residential area in Guangzhou, P.R.C., referred to in the episodes as Maahnfa Hong, or Maahnfa Lane. This series was the first television program produced in Guangzhou in which the performers spoke in very natural, everyday, colloquial Cantonese, the kind of speech that ordinary people use in conversing with each other, and was part of the reason for the success of the series. The colloquial nature of the dialogues yielded a rich corpus of sentence-final particles that were not scripted. A quick comparison of the original scripts and the dialogues in the actual television episodes makes it amply clear that much improvising took place, with liberal changes to the original script, including substitution of words, deletion of lines, and rephrasing of lines into colloquial Cantonese. Typically, only the most basic sentence-final particles were included in the original scripts, which were written with a mixture of Cantonese and Mandarin syntax and vocabulary. Significantly for the present study, except for a few rare instances, sentence-final particles jē and jēk were not written into the scripts. These unscripted particles were produced by the actors and actresses in the filming of the series. The fact that the series was shot on location in a real residential neighborhood, and not inside a film studio, may have contributed significantly to spontaneous and lively renditions of the lines by very talented, seasoned performers who made full use of their native intuitions of Cantonese.

            The naturalness of the language in the episodes can be illustrated with the opening dialogue in Episode One of the corpus, presented in (1) below. The conversation begins with A-Cheung (AC), a man in his thirties who runs the neighborhood convenience store. He is speaking to Sing Baak (SB), or Uncle Sing, a senior and long-time resident of Maahnfa Lane. In (1), sentence-final particles (some of which can also occur clause-finally) are given in upper-case bold lettering. None of these sentence-final particles are performing any obvious grammatical function. Other particles can also be found in (1) include interjections, topic particles, and place fillers, which are highlighted in bold. The transcription is in Yale romanization, with informal translation [7] included below. In just this opening dialogue, one observes two instances of jē, both uttered by Sing Baak.

            (1)       Chinese characters:

                        AC:     勝 伯，你 都 幾 歎 ge bo。朝 頭 早 a 起 床 a 飲 早 茶，晏 晝 a 起 床 a 等 晚 報，咁 a，

行 行 逛 逛 又 一 日 ge la.

                        SB﹕   H1i，你 睇 我 好，我 睇 你 好 ge J4，昌。你 係 辛 苦，你 辛 苦 得 搵 到 錢 BO。

你 睇 我 a 得 閒 J4，我 得 閒 得  a 好 辛 苦 ga。

                        Yale romanization:

                        AC:     Sing Baak, l5ih d8u g5i taan ge bo. J%u t3uhj9u a h5ich-hng a y1m j9uch3h, ngaanjau a h5ich-hng

a d1ng m1ahnbou, g1m a h3ahngh1ahng kwaangkwang yauh y`t yaht ge la.

                        SB:      H1i, l5ih t1i ng9h h9u, ng9h t1i l5ih h9u ge j4, Ch4ung. L5ih haih s`nf{, l5ih s`nf{ d`k l3ih w1nd9u

ch^n BO. L5ih t1i ng9h a d`kh3ahn J4, ng9h d`kh3ahn d`k l3ih a h9u s`nf{ ga. 

Translation :

                        AC:     Uncle Sing, you sure take life easy. You get up in the morning and have your morning tea;

in the afternoon you get up from your nap and wait around for the evening paper. You stroll

and hang around, and another day goes by. 

                        SB:      You think I’m having a good time, but I think the same thing about you, Cheung. It’s true you

have to work hard, but your hard work earns you money. You see me with so much free time,

but having so much free time can be really miserable. 

            The twelve episodes that form the database for this study had been selected for a multimedia, Kaleidoscope project in which the television series was the basic materials for a five-volume series, Kaleidoscope: A Course in Intermediate to Advanced Spoken Cantonese. This multimedia series first appeared in 1994, while the final two volumes are in press. The series, edited by Galal Walker, is published by Foreign Language Publications, Foreign Language Center, at the Ohio State University. The series includes videotapes of the episodes, and is accompanied by audiotapes of the sound tracks, Yale romanization transcriptions of the dialogues, translations, and other language-learning materials. For ease of reference, the twelve episodes are listed in Table 1, together with their English titles and the volume in which they appear in the Kaleidoscope series. These twelve episodes together constitute close to five hours of videotape for the current study. They had been selected from different time periods in the two-year production of the series, with roughly half from the first year and the other half from the second year. For reference, the original sequence of these twelve episodes in the film series is recorded in Table 1 within parentheses. As shown, the very first episode in the television series and the second-last episode form part of the present corpus, thereby capturing the regulars at all stages of their familiarity with the characters they play.

Episode

Vol.

Title  (Chinese)

Title (English)

1

(77)

5

雨過天晴

Sunny Sky After the Storm

 

2

(65)

5

第一印象

First Impression

 

3

(48)

5

人情緊過債

To Give Gifts is More Important Than

to Pay Debts

4

(97)

5

等價交換

Exchange of Equal Value

 

5

(32)

5

按章辦事

According to the Rules

 

6

(1)

5

消費者的煩惱

Consumers Worry

 

7

(10)

5

新任經理

The New Manager

 

8

(84)

5

萬花又迎春

Maahnfa Greets the Spring Again

 

9

(12)

1

短命信箱

The Short-Lived Mailbox

 

10

(102)

2

玉照風波

Fuss Over a Womans Picture

 

11

(61)

3

心知肚明

You Know, I Know, Everybody Knows

 

12

(25)

4

無盡的害

Endless Harm

 

Table 1. The Twelve Episodes in the Kaleidoscope Series.

(Episode numbers in the original film series are given within parentheses.)

 

          The conversations in the twelve episodes are primarily among friends, old and new, who are residents of Maahnfa Lane. Individuals who participate as speakers or hearers in utterances containing j4 and/or j4k are listed in Table 2, subdivided into ‘a’ and ‘b’, with seniors and adults placed in Table 2a and young people and children in Table 2b. Most of the participants fall into the ‘adult’ category, with a subcategory being spouses, and are identified as such in Table 2a. The adults are mostly in their thirties; the seniors are in their sixties or older; youths are teenagers, and children are pre-teens. Most events and activities center around the adults and a pair of seniors in Maahnfa Lane. As a result, they produced most of the j4 and j4k sentences in the study. The participants are also subcategorized based on sex in Tables 2a and 2b. With this introduction to the personages in the series, we proceed to some background on the nature and functions of j4 and/or j4k , based on dictionaries, grammars, textbooks, and other sources.

  

FEMALES

MALES 

SENIORS

Wife-Husband Pairs:

 

SS Sing Sam (Aunt Sing)

S B Sing Baak (Uncle Sing)

Other Seniors:

 

(n/a)

B A Bah (Dad, WF’s father)

ADULTS

Wife-Husband Pairs:

AF A-Fong

WY Wohng Yisang (Dr. Wong)

AT A-Tai

AC A-Cheung

BJ Bing-je (Older Sister Bing)

FG Fai-go (Older Brother Fai)

MT Muih Taai (Mrs. Muih)

MC Muih Chongjeung

(Factory Director Muih)

WT Wuh Taai (Mrs. Wuh)

WF Wuh Fojeung (Director Wu)

 

 

Other Adults:

GM Giu Ma (Giu’s Mom)

AK A-Kwan (BJ’s younger

cousin)

P1 Passer-by (Mo. of P2)

G A-Gong (WT’s younger

brother)

 

SG Sing-go (AK’s acquaintance)

 

AB Patient (WY’s patient)

 Table 2a. Participants (Speakers and/or Hearers) with Lines Containing JE and/or JEK.

(Italicized personages are not residents of Maahnfa Lane.)

 

FEMALES

MALES

YOUTHS

AJ A-Jing (DT/DS’s daughter;

MJ’s younger sister)

MJ Mahn Jai (DT/DS’s son;

AJ’s older brother)

S A-Sau (WT/WF’s daughter)

 

DG Daaih Giu (Big Giu; GM’s

older daughter)

 

SG Siu Giu (Little Giu; GM’s

younger daughter)

 

HM Hungmuih (Singer)

 

LK Customer

 

CHILDREN

P2 Passer-by (daughter of P1)

JJ Ji Jai (WT/WF’s young son)

 

M Ming Jai (WT/WF’s young son)

Table 2b. Participants (Speakers and/or Hearers) with Lines Containing JE and/or JEK.

(Italicized personages are non-residents of Maahnfa Lane.)

 

1.2. Functions of JE and JEK in Some Dictionaries. We turn first to some dictionary entries for these two particles.

            One of the earlier Cantonese dictionaries, Bernhard F. Meyer and Theodore F.Wempe (1947, 3rd edition), treats j4 and j4k as variant forms of one final, ‘limiting’ particle with two different pronunciations: j4 in high tone, and jek, not with high, but mid, tone (Yin-qu).[8]  In all other sources used here, j4k has high tone.

            A second well-known source is Parker Huang (1970:xx), in which the two particles are described as having high (level) tone, and are distinguished as summarized below in (2), based on Huang (1970:403). There is no mention of affective use for either particle.

(2)       a.         J4 has invariant form and is glossed with the meaning of ‘and that’s all, only.’

            b.         The second particle is j4(k). It has two variants – j4k (the full form) and j4 (the reduced form without stop closure).

J4(k) is ‘a final particle generally used in a negative sentence’ (as in mh.haih j4(k). ‘No, it isn’t so.’). 

            Another well-known source is Sidney Lau (1977:386, 387), in which j4 and j4k (both high (level) tone) are treated as having a "delimiting function at the end of statements". Nonetheless, only j4 may be followed by another sentence-final particle, such as the question particle, gwa, or combined with another particle, ma to "express disagreement of some kind".[9] The twelve episodes do not have j4 in combination with gwa, but there are several instances of j4 followed by ma, which are included in this study. The vowel in j4 in this context is often weakened to a schwa.

            The fourth and last dictionary to be noted here is Rao Bingcai, Ouyang Jueya, and Zhou Wuji (1981:255, 257) [10], where j4 and j4k are treated as two separate modal particles. Both particles convey the speakers’ tact and agreeableness, but only j4k reflects gender preference. J4 is defined as expressing defence of oneself or refuting, and j4k that of expressing definiteness or offering advice. J4k is identified as being used more by girls.

 1.3. Functions of JE and JEK in Cantonese Grammars and Other Literature. This section presents the functions of j4 and j4k given in some of the published grammars and other sources of Cantonese. Section 1.3.1 discusses the literature that refer only to j4; section 1.3.2 notes one source that only refers to j4k; and section 1.3.3 presents sources that recognize the existence of both j4 and j4k, though opinions differ as to whether these are two distinct particles or merely phonetic variants of a single particle. The complex situation suggests that further investigation is needed to comprehend more fully the modern context in the use of j4 and j4k in Guangzhou and Hong Kong.

1.3.1. JE Only. The early Cantonese sources only refer to j4.[11] J. Dyer Ball (1924, 4th ed.) lists j4, with high tone, as well as a mid-level tone variant, je, glossing them both as ‘implying limitation.’ Significantly, j4k is not listed among his inventory of seventy-seven final particles in Cantonese, among which are a number of particles that differ only in tone or one segment.

            Similarly, one of the older Cantonese textbooks of this century, and the foundation for the author’s better known Mandarin Primer, is Cantonese Primer by Chao (1947). Appearing at the end of Lesson One is j4. (It is romanized as ce in Chao’s textbook, phonetically: tse Š. Explanation of the particle is given in Note 27 (p.86): "final particle having the force of ‘only,’ ‘that’s all there is to it’." The sentence (p.83) ends with the clause containing j4 , given in (3a). (His romanization system is converted to Yale romanization below minus tone diacritics, and Chinese characters are added). Chao does not provide any further discussion of j4 in sentence-final position. He does, however, include j4 in the sequence, j4 ma, treating them as a "‘double particle for emphasis, ‘that’s all, you see’" (Lesson 15, Note 35, p.165). As in (3a), the example presented in (3b) has a delimiting function, with jihng haih having the meaning of ‘be only, merely’.

(3)       a.         一，二，三 –e，係 喇，我   係 三 個 人 j4。

                        Yat, yi, sam – e , haih la, ngohdeih haih saam go yahn j4.

                        ‘1, 2, 3 ─ yuh, that’s right, we are only three men.’ (i.e., people.)

            b.         日 本 淨 係 一 個 小 島 國 家 j4 ma。

                        yahtbun jihng haih yat go siu dou gwokga j4 ma

                        ‘Japan is only a little country, you see.’

 J4k does not appear in Chao’s textbook, just as it did not in earlier works such as Ball (1924, 4th ed.).

            Wang Li (1957) also notes j4 only, and makes no comments about j4k. For j4, besides the delimiting function – which clearly has had a long history, based on what is observed above – Wang (1957:92) also discusses j4 as a modal particle used for emphasis. Furthermore, he notes that it is a particle young children like to use, which conveys a sense of bragging on the part of the speaker.

            Even into the 1960’s, with the publication of the Cantonese reference by Qiao Yannong (1966:304), there is no reference to j4k. Qiao only gives j4 and discusses three functions of that particle, outlined in (4). The sentences in (4a) are interrogative sentences in which Qiao identifies j4 as occurring often as a modal particle in female speech, with a sense of being affectedly sweet. To the best of my knowledge, Qiao may be the first to observe such feminine usage of j4. Qiao also details the phonetic lengthening of j4 in (4b), trivializing the amount. And in (4c), the use of j4 adds a sense of conceding or yielding. All three uses of j4 in (4) have in common the rendering of the sentence non-assertive on the part of the speaker. It is also noteworthy that j4 is the only sentence-final particle Qiao identifies with gender-marked usage.

 (4)      a.         i.          做 乜   j4                             ii.          有 乜 事 j4

                                    jouh matyeh j4                                      yauh matyeh sih j4

                                    ‘What’s the matter?’                         ‘What happened?’

            b.         i.          一 毫 子 j4 …                         ii.          一 個 人 j4 …

                                    yat houhji j4 …                                     yat go yahn j4 …

 ‘Only ten cents (a dime) .’               ‘It’s only one person…’

c.                  我 祗 係 問 一 聲 j4.

ngoh jihaih mahn yat seng j4.

                        ‘I’m only just asking.’

            Of even more recent vintage is Xu Yongling’s (1993:162)’s study in which she focuses on interrogative sentences. Describing j4 as a particle that occurs relatively frequently in Cantonese speech, she notes its presence in three subcases: one, interrogative sentences in general (yes-no type of questions as well as WH-questions); two, disjunctive V-not-V questions, and three, disjunctive copular questions, haih … dihnghaih (係 … 定係) ‘is… or is.’ Xu does not mention j4k and does not delve into functional explanations.

1.3.2. JEK Only. In contrast to the above, Gao Huanian (1980:196-197) discusses two uses of j4k, and does not mention j4 at all. The first involves bringing the hearer’s attention to a matter, and reminding them of it. He observes the second usage as one that occurs commonly between relatives and very close friends. Furthermore, the particle is used by the younger generation in speaking to someone in the older generation, as in children to their parents, and siblings to their older brothers and sisters. The usage also carries with it some degree of coyness, or acting like a spoiled child (as in sajiao 撒嬌 in Mandarin). He notes that a sentence such as (5b), for example, would rarely be uttered by an old person. Thus, Gao brings into the discussion factors of age and generational differences, as well as the possibility that kinship relations across generations might also play a role in the use or non-use of j4k in conversations between participants of non-equal rank or social status.

(5)       a.         我 去 睇 過 佢 ，佢 個 病 好 翻 好 多 j4k。

                        ngaamngaam ngoh deih heui tai gwo keuih laih, keuih go behng hou faan hou do j4k.

                        ‘We had just gone to see him. He has recovered a lot (from his illness).’

            b.         我 今 朝 撞 見 張 院 長 j4k﹗

                        ngoh kamjiu johng gin Jeung Yuhnjeung j4k!

                        ‘This morning I bumped into Director Zhang.’

1.3.3. JE AND JEK. With the exception of Gao (1980), textbooks and grammar books of the past few decades all seem to refer to both j4 and j4k. The authors, however, are not necessarily in agreement on how they should be treated. Depending on author, j4 and j4k are treated as one of the following:

(6)       a.         One particle with phonetic variants.

            b.         One particle with phonetic variants and subcase

            c.         Two distinct particles 

1.3.3.1. JE and JEK as One Particle. Sidney Lau’s (1968 1st ed., 1972 4th ed.) treatment of j4 and j4k falls under category (6a). He regards them as differing only in pronunciation, implying a sense of ‘limitation’ or diminutiveness’. Moreover, Lau (1972:445) notes that the two adverbs, batgwo 不過 ‘only, just, merely, nothing other than, nothing but’ and jihnghaih 淨係 (used to specify a particular thing and at the same time to exclude all other alternatives), are normally used in conjunction with these particles. They add emphasis, precisely because of their delimiting or diminutive function. In his glossary, Lau (1973:51-52) identifies j4 and j4k as having the following function: "used as a diminutive or as a sign of limitation." One expects that it is the diminutive function that, by extension, came to be used more by those in a more junior or lower status to someone in a more senior or higher status. It then takes on a further role of being more marked for female usage, including with a coquettish nuance to it.

 1.3.3.2. JE and JEK as One Particle with Subcase. Two studies fall under this section and will be discussed in turn. It should be noted that in neither study does some theoretical argument rest crucially on the analysis given.

 1.3.3.2.1. Samuel Hung-nin Cheung (1972:181-2) treats j4 and j4k essentially as variant forms of one particle, /je/. In this context, they perform one of two functions: a delimiting function, as in (7a), and another function not yet mentioned above, namely that of conveying pride on the part of the speaker in telling the hearer something s/he would not have known, as exemplified in (7b).[12] Contrasting with (7a) and (7b) is (7c), the third usage, which Cheung explicitly identifies as feminine-marked, and notes that it is generally pronounced j4k. Cheung’s four illustrative examples are given here in (7c).

 (7)      a.         i.          你 有 幾 個 細 蚊 仔 呀﹖… 我 有 一 個 j4。

                                    neih yauh gei go saimanjai a? … ngoh yauh yat go j4.

                                    ‘How many children do you have? … I only have one.’

                        ii.          有 幾 遠 呀﹖好 近 j4﹗

                                    yauh gei yuhn a? hou kahn j4!

                                    ‘How far is it? … Very close!’

            b.         我 琴 晚 喺 街 處 見 到 你 j4k﹗

            ngoh kahm maahn hai gaai syu gin dou neih j4k!

                        ‘I saw you on the street last night.’ 

            c.         i.          我 好 恨 食 糖 j4k[13]﹗                    ii.          點 解 你 成 日 睇 住 我 j4k﹖

                                    ngoh hou hahn sihk tong j4k!                             dimgaai neih sehngyat taijyu ngoh j4k!

                                    ‘I love (to eat) candy!’                                   ‘Why do you stare at me all day?!’

                        iii.         係 唔 係 ga j4k﹖                                iv.        唔 係 ga j4k﹗

                                    haih mhhaih ga j4k?                                           mhhaih ga j4k!

                                    ‘Is it?/Is it so?’                                               ‘It’s not so.’

            Cheung further notes that the construction with j4k in (7c) is used abundantly, and can occur in declaratives as well as in V-not-V constructions. However, such utterances in Cantonese have the effect of making the speaker sound soft-spoken, with a coquettish air to it. As a result, Cheung observes that males do not use it. Of the inventory of sentence particles that Cheung discusses in his book, gender-differential use is only noted for j4k. Moreover, j4k in sentences such as (7c) is identified as gender-exclusive.

 1.3.3.2.2. Timothy Light (1982:32ff) essentially follows Cheung in considering all occurrences of j4k to be phonetic variants of one particle.[14] In particular, Light focuses on two phonetic variants of j4k: a phonetically long j44, [tsE:], and the checked variant, [tsEk]. Hence, Light considers Cheung’s third set of examples with final -k, given in (7c) above, to be interchangeable with j44. Light also specifically asserts going further than Cheung in proposing that the predominance of the feminine use of j4k provides the clue to understanding the general sense of this particle and its variants. He notes that j4k in sentences such as those in (7c) "serves to draw attention to what the speaker is saying, without making a statement strongly apodictic, and without making a question strongly demanding interrogation" (p.35). He further suggests that the pragmatic use of j4k in these sentences "derives directly from the base meaning of ‘only’ in that the speaker using j4k both draws attention to what she/he says and at the same time withholds assertiveness."

            Light (p.33) considers the unchecked, j44, variant to be perceived as being ‘softer’ and ‘gentler’ than the checked variant, j4k. That is, the unchecked, long vocalic variant, j44, is even less assertive than j4k, in serving to reassure the hearer that the speaker is not threatening. For Light, there is a continuum in the degree of assertiveness reflected in the use of j44, j4k, or a bare sentence: a sentence with j44 is least assertive, j4k next, and a bare sentence with no sentence-final particle the most assertive. Light also notes, based on interview sessions to elicit judgments of individuals about others’ speech as well as their own, that in general, the j44 variant of j4k is considered to be in decreasing use. This may be reflected in recent sources (e.g., Cheung 1972, Gao 1980, and Matthews and Yip 1994), which typically identify the checked form, j4k, as the one that is characteristic of female speech, though not necessarily used exclusively by females.

            Light also makes it clear that he does not identify j4k and two other feminine particles in his study as particles [15] that are used solely by females. Rather, they are identified by his informants as forms that are used in the company of familiars; that is, among family members, between lovers, and among very close working companions.

1.3.3.3. Two Distinct Particles. Most publications in recent years provide a two-particle treatment. Below, we will discuss four such sources.

1.3.3.3.1. Zeng Zifan (1982:283-4) exemplifies category (6c), in distinguishing j4 and j4k. J4 is used in contexts involving some kind of turn in the course of events, as in (8a), and includes the delimitative function. The second particle, j4k, has two usages, one of which conveys impatience on the part of the speaker, as in (8b-i), and the other that of boastfulness, as in (8b-ii).[16]

(8)       a.         而 家 先 至 三 點 j4

                        yihga sinji saam dim j4

                        ‘It’s only three o’clock now.’

            b.         i.          去 邊 j4k                                 ii.          我 買 本 j4k

                                    heui bin j4k?                                         ngoh maaih-jo bun j4k

                             ‘Where’re you going?’                     ‘I’ve bought one!’

 1.3.3.3.2. Helen Kwok (1984:53) simply translates j4 as ‘only’ (9a), but provides an analysis of j4k that is germane to the current study. With respect to the use of j4k (dzek in her romanization) in declarative sentences, she notes the observations made by Gao (1980) regarding j4k, and adds her own views concerning j4k in declarative and imperative sentences, repeated here in (9b). Further s