Literacy Movement

Much has been written about the need for technology training and the development of computer-related literacies in children and adults. Marcoux, for instance, outlines the national standards set for information literacy, which represents "a critical national set of student learning outcomes" (15). Media literacy standards for elementary schools also tend to be wide-reaching in scope and advocate a set of skills that all children in the country should acquire in order to "develop into lifelong learners" (17). In addition, many web sites devoted to media literacy have been established, including the Center for Media Literacy, the Media Literacy Education Project, and the Media Literacy Online Project, to assist both students and teachers.

Some universities have adopted technological literacy requirements, and others have incorporated computer skills courses into traditional liberal arts curricula (see Column One: Curriculum; Kubey & Baker; Mendels, "Push"; Mendels, "Universities"; Pal; Weiner, "Certifying"; Weiner, "Making"). The Ohio State University has also outlined a set of competencies expected of all graduates (see OSU Technology Fee Proposal; OSU's net.Tutor). These standards raise questions concerning the definitions of literacy and the nature of educational programming needed to teach these new competencies or literacies.

With the proliferation of digital communication technology, traditional definitions of literacy have been found lacking to describe the new skills people need. Although television is one of the main media targeted for media literacy education, hypermedia has been one of the factors affecting this push for a new, computer-related literacy:

Hypermedia carries complex messages embedded in a multi-sensory, interactive medium, making plausible the notion of a new literacy. The trend toward hypermedia as a mode of communication in mainstream American culture indicates a need for educators, who shoulder much responsibility for the literacy of youth, to look beyond print-based notions of literacy to an emerging cultural literacy driven by and embodied in electronic hypermedia communication systems (McNabb 53).

Although many educators and school administrators may feel educational policies and programs can most effectively develop these new literacy skills in students as a requirement of graduation, some feel that literacy education should be undertaken by individual communities. For instance, Adams and Goldbard write, "A major national initiative could ensure that community cultural centers are staffed with media professionals and brought into the electronic age" (72). Regardless of what these new literacies are called and where they are taught, media and educational professionals will need to be involved in developing instructional programming. jump to top of "Literacy Movement" section

Media & Literacy Education

The "Literacies" | Elementary Education | Higher Education | Adult Education

The "Literacies"

In media education, many new literacies have been defined, including media literacy, information literacy, digital literacy, visual literacy, technological literacy, to name a few. McNabb has offered more than one explanation for the need for these new literacies:

Although print-based human communication is the dominant mode of communication in western civilization, it deprives learners of the essential basal experiences that allow for an accurate translation of word symbols, resulting in a potential mismatch between mental images and word associations (50).

While hypertext draws on the standard grammar of its verbal language origin, hypermedia draws on lesser known grammars from 20th Century fields of communication including cinematology, visual literacy, and semiotics. An underlying premise of visual instruction is that all visuals are arbitrary to some degree, requiring acquired skill to compose and comprehend (52).

Other scholars have offered their own explanations, but the explanations all have one thing in common: the traditional notion of print literacy is not sufficient to explain the skills needed for understanding messages transmitted by new media. jump to top of "Media Literacy & Education" section

Elementary Education

Much of the research into media literacy education has been at the elementary school level, proposing and assessing pedagogical tools. For instance, Seels describes the Excellence Program, a program in Pittsburgh's public school system in which students use logo to illustrate stories and develop visual literacy skills.

Bazeli goes beyond describing a program already in practice. After a review of literature regarding spatial visualization and thinking skills, she reports the results of a study "investigating the effects of visual literacy instruction upon the measured cognitive ability of fourth- and fifth-grade students" (56). Results showed a significant improvement in cognitive ability in the experimental group and the control group. Although there was no significant difference between the mean post test scores of the two groups, students in the experimental group had a more positive attitude toward critical thinking. For further research into visual literacy instruction, Bazeli recommended testing whether students become better viewers, better critical thinkers about visuals or more informed about visuals after visual literacy instruction. She also recommended teacher training in visual literacy instruction, a larger sample, and longer instruction periods to give students more "time to experiment with, analyze, and apply the thinking strategies they learn in individual activities" (57).

In another article, Bazeli and Robinson suggest ideas for the inclusion across the curriculum of instruction in critical thinking. They suggest using video analysis in language arts, social studies and reading classes and video production in math, science, reading and social studies classes. They also suggest the use of hands-on activities, such as computer software programs, visual analysis and photography. In addition, handbooks like Media & You help teachers design media literacy assignments for elementary school students. jump to top of "Media Literacy & Education" section

Higher Education

There has also been much written about media literacy in higher education. For instance, Williamson investigated media education in introductory liberal arts courses. Specifically, Williamson presents "a case study of a flexible learning project designed to help first-year undergraduates acquire independent skills of research, information management, reading, analysis, problem-solving and writing that are valuable for working in and on the media" (203).

Two of Williamson's research questions seem particularly relevant in a discussion of screen literacy:

• In what ways do new communications technologies alter our understanding of media literacy?
• How can media subjects be most relevant to students following increasingly different educational pathways? (203)

In addition, Williamson's conclusions about resource-based learning and flexible learning are particularly relevant when considering a screen literacy module for the course Living in the Information Age. A resource-based approach was found to "support students' explorations of the relations between media and adjacent disciplinary and social areas" (213). Flexible learning was found to "sustain varied combinations of generalist and specialist learning about the media that strengthen students' capacities to understand and use communications forms for diverse purposes in the immediate and post-experience worlds of learning, leisure and work" (213).

In a collection of case studies, Warschauer examines the role of computer-assisted education in developing "multiliteracies." In one of the case studies, students in the class were required to create a web page, which "involved learning both technical and rhetorical skills, ranging from photo editing to evaluating effective ways to combine images and text to communicate a message" (160). This case study is particularly relevant because students in Living in the Information Age are also required to create an individual web page. Warschauer found that through the design project students learned not only about writing for the Web but also about reading the Web, but individual learning experiences depended upon "the sense of purpose" each student brought to each project (160-1).

Warschauer concludes, "Becoming fully literate in today's society, at least in the industrialized world, means gaining competent control of representational forms in a variety of media and learning how those forms best combine in a variety of genres and discourses" (177). Media literacy programs in higher education aspire to this goal, teaching students critical reading, viewing, and interpretation skills to help them understand meaning-making structures in different media. jump to top of "Media Literacy & Education" section

Adult Education

Less has been written about developing adult media literacy. However, one scholar has studied media power and bias in television programming and suggests techniques for teaching adults critical viewing strategies. He concludes:

This new form of literacy helps adults become aware of the potential for political manipulation inherent in the mass media, particularly broadcasting and the press. Media literate adults develop filtering devices to sift, decode, and demythologize the content of media images. Such adults are not definitively knowledgeable concerning every public issue of the day. They are, however, sophisticated in their capacity to be aware when issues are trivialized, when images take precedence over substantive discussion, and when the pursuit of apparent objectivity masks the presentation of a monolithic, consensus viewpoint from which deviant or unpopular interpretations are eliminated (Brookfield 159).

Others, like Adams and Goldbard, see media literacy as a tool for democratic change and advocate public policy for the development of a media-literate society.

A major national initiative could ensure that community cultural centers are situated in every community, staffed with media professionals, and brought into the electronic age with public access facilities linked to cable and broadcast outlets" (72-3).

Although Warschauer writes, "To a large measure, it is in schools and colleges where people will become more or less knowledgeable users of electronic media, critical or less critical readers and writers in an electronic era," (21) Adams and Goldbard state

If media education stops at the schoolhouse door, however, it will be very difficult to bring about universal media literacy. Continuing education policy must encourage the deployment of media resources in many community settings (71).

However, more research needs to be done in the area of adult media literacy to determine what activities are most successful in developing media literacy skills. jump to top of "Media Literacy & Education" section