RHETORIC, as was observed already, not only considers the subject, but also the hearers and the speaker.70 The hearers must be considered in a twofold view, as men in general, and as such men in particular.
As men in general, it must be allowed there are certain principles in our nature, which, when properly addressed and managed, give no inconsiderable aid to reason in promoting belief. Nor is it just to conclude from this concession, as some have hastily done, that oratory may be defined, "The art of deception." The use of such helps will be found, on a stricter examination, to be in most cases quite legitimate, and even necessary, if we would give reason herself that influence which is certainly her due. In order to evince the truth considered by itself, conclusive arguments alone are requisite; but in order to convince me by these arguments, it is moreover requisite that they be understood, that they be attended tothat they be remembered by me; and in order to persuade me by them to any particular action or conduct, it is further requisite, that by interesting me in the subject, they may, as it were, be felt. It is not therefore the understanding alone that is here concerned. If the orator would prove successful, it is necessary that he engage in his service all these different powers of the mind, the imagination, the memory, and the passions. These are not the supplanters of reason, or even rivals in her sway; they are her handmaids, by whose ministry she is enabled to usher truth into the heart, and procure it there a favourable reception. As handmaids they are liable to be seduced by sophistry in the garb of reason, and sometimes are made ignorantly to lend their aid in the introduction of falsehood. But their service is not on this account to be dispensed with; there is even a necessity of employing it, founded on our nature. Our eyes and hands and feet will give us the same assistance in doing mischief as in doing good; but it would not therefore be better for the world, that all mankind were blind and lame. Arms are not to be laid aside by honest men, because carried by assassins and ruffians; they are to be used the rather for this very reason. Nor are those mental powers, of which eloquence so much avails herself, like the art of war or other human arts, perfectly indifferent to good and evil, and only beneficial as they are rightly employed. On the contrary, they are by nature, as will perhaps appear afterwards, more friendly to truth than to falsehood, and more easily retained in the cause of virtue, than in that of vice.71
But to descend to particulars; the first thing to be studied by
the speaker is, that his arguments may be understood. If they be
unintelligible, the cause must be either in the sense or in the
expression. It lies in the sense if the mediums of proof be such as
the hearers are unacquainted with; that is, if the ideas introduced
be either without the sphere of their knowledge, or too abstract for
their apprehension and habits of thinking. It lies in the sense
likewise, if the train of reasoning (though no unusual ideas should
be introduced) be longer, or more complex, or more intricate, than
they are accustomed to. But as the fitness of the arguments, in these
respects, depends on the capacity, education, and attainments of the
hearers, which in different orders of men are different, this
properly belongs to the consideration which the speaker ought to have
of his audience, not as men in general, but as men in particular. The
obscurity which ariseth from the expression will come in course to be
considered in the sequel.
Next Section | Table of Contents | Suggestions & Annotations | Editors' Introduction